IAHE HISTORY
Quarter century of hydrogen movement 1974–2000
T. Nejat Veziroglu
Clean Energy Research Institute, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, P.O. Box 248294, Coral Gables, FL 33124–0622, USA
Abstract
A quarter of a century has passed since the beginning of the Hydrogen Energy Movement. Over the past 25 years, there have been accomplishments on every front — from the acceptance of the concept as an answer to energy and environment related global problems — to research, development and commercialization. The Hydrogen Energy System has now taken firm roots. Activities towards the implementation are accelerating.
1. Introduction
It was just a little over a quarter of a century ago, during the first international conference on Hydrogen Energy, the Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy Conference, or the THEME Conference for short, held on 18–20 March 1974, in Miami Beach, FL, USA, when, on the afternoon of the second day, a small group got together: this group later named the "Hydrogen Romantics", consisted of Cesare Marchetti, John Bockris, Tokio Ohta, Bill Van Vorst, Anibal Martinez, Walter Seifritz, Hussein Abdel-Aal, Bill Escher, Bob Zweig, the late Kurt Weil, myself and a few other enthusiasts, whose names escape me (Table 1). There was a passionate, yet deliberate debate. It was agreed that the Hydrogen Energy System (Fig. 1) was an idea whose time had arrived. It was the permanent solution to the depletion of conventional fuels. It was the permanent solution to the global environmental problems.
Then the discussion turned to whether there was a need for a formal organization. It was Anibal Martinez of Venezuela (incidentally the one who took part in setting up the petroleum cartel (OPEC), who urged the founding of a society dedicated to crusade for the establishment of what seemed to be to the gathering, and which later proved to be, the inevitable and universal energy system. It was ironic that he was proposing the establishment of an organization, which would make OPEC obsolete. The rest is history. IAHE was established by the end of that year, and started working in earnest.
2. Accomplishments
In spite of the fact that the conventional fuels are subsidized by the governments (even though they damage the health of the people, the well being of this planet, and the integrity of everything living and/or standing on it), and that equivalent subsidies have never been extended to hydrogen in the quarter of a century since the Hydrogen Movement began, hydrogen has still made significant progress and inroads in several directions in the energy field, due to its unmatched superior properties and characteristics as an energy carrier.
There has been progress on every front. All those who took part in the Movement, and all those who are presently taking part in this Movement, can feel very proud. There is every reason why we should celebrate this milestone, the Quarter Century of the Hydrogen Movement. Let us survey the happenings and achievements during this establishment period.
2.1. Conferences
One of the first activities of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy was to organize the biennial World Hydrogen Energy Conferences (WHECs) to provide a platform for the Hydrogen Energy community, for the scientists, energy engineers, environmentalists, decision makers, and the thinkers of the future of humankind and the Planet Earth.
WHEC Conferences have been held in most of the major countries around the world. The first WHEC Conference was held in Miami in 1976, and the others followed in two-year intervals in Zurich, Tokyo, Pasadena, Toronto, Vienna, Moscow, Honolulu, Paris, Cocoa Beach, Stuttgart, Buenos Aires and now in Beijing (Fig. 2).
I would like to add that, in parallel with the WHEC Conferences, there have been several other conferences organized, dedicated to specific applications of hydrogen, such as transportation, fuel cells, metal hydride batteries, hydrogen–metal interactions, etc. Also the number of national and international conferences devoted to hydrogen energy, and/or having sessions on hydrogen energy, are increasing in number.
2.2. Concept
Before the THEME Conference, little attention was paid to hydrogen as an energy carrier. The words "Hydrogen Energy", "Hydrogen Economy", "Hydrogen Energy System" were unknown even to most of those well-versed in energy.
Today, these words are well known and accepted (Fig. 3). Not only the scientists and engineers, but also the public at large, is becoming exposed to the concept. We see more and more articles and news items in the popular press about the environmental benefits of hydrogen, hydrogen as the fuel of the future, and the progress in hydrogen energy technologies.
The expressions "hydrogen energy", "hydrogen economy", "hydrogen energy system" have entered the scientific literature, newspapers and appear in everyday vocabulary.
2.3. Organizations
Twenty-five years ago, there was no organization dedicated to hydrogen energy. Today, national and international organizations, devoted to hydrogen energy or the application of its unique and particular properties, cover the globe from one end to the other; from the United States to Japan, from Sweden to Australia. As can be seen in Fig. 4, there are at least eighteen such organizations, and their numbers are growing. Many of these organizations are also forming alliances with environmental groups, establishing chapters, and educating the uninitiated.
2.4. Periodicals
A quarter of a century ago, there was no periodical dedicated to hydrogen energy. The International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (IJHE), which is the official journal of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE), is in its 25th year. In 1975, it started as a quarterly. Three years later, it became bimonthly, and in 1982, was elevated to monthly. From time to time, we are increasing the page budget, because of the growing number of the papers being received. In addition to IJHE, there are now several other periodicals — not only in English, but also in many other languages (Fig. 5).
2.5. Books
The number of hydrogen energy-related books has shown an exponential growth over the past 25 years. The THEME and the WHEC Conference proceedings now stand at 45 volumes. In addition, dozens of volumes have been published on hydrogen energy, hydrogen-fuelled transportation, hydrogen fuel cells, hydrogen–metal interactions in all the major languages of the world (Fig. 6).
2.6. Visual programs
Twenty-five years ago, we heard little or nothing in the visual media about hydrogen, with the exception that it was the fuel for the rockets in space programs. Since then, many imaginative and popular programs and documentaries have been produced by major television companies, hydrogen energy organizations, and companies working on the hydrogen energy technologies (Fig. 7).
2.7. Internet sites
Of course, before 1974, there were no internet sites at all, as well as no internet sites on Hydrogen Energy. Your association, the International Association for Hydrogen Energy, has established an internet site with the address of "www.iahe.org", giving information on the association, its goals and objectives, organization, activities, conferences, publications, memberships, etc. There are a score of other internet sites which are dedicated to giving information on Hydrogen Energy and on various organizations and companies related to Hydrogen Energy (Fig. 8). Their numbers are growing fast.
2.8. Electric power generation
Hydrogen is a unique fuel with unmatched properties. One of its unique properties is that it can be converted to electricity electrochemically in fuel cells with high efficiencies. It is not subject to the limitations of the Carnot Cycle, which is the case with the present-day thermal power plants — whether they burn fossil fuels or nuclear fuels. Because of this high utilization efficiency advantage of hydrogen, electric utilities, electric power equipment manufacturers and power industry research organizations have taken a particular interest in electric power generation through hydrogen fuel cells. Tokyo Electric Utility started experimenting with a 4.5 MW Pratt and Whitney fuel cell years ago. Now they have a second one in line — an 11 MW fuel cell power plant.
Major power generating equipment manufacturers have become involved in research, development, and marketing of hydrogen fuel cell power plants. Several new companies have been formed specifically to work on fuel cells (Fig. 9).
There are many types of fuel cells. They have different and unique properties making each type suitable for a particular application: phosphoric acid fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. Some of these have already been commercialized, demonstration projects have been started for some, and others are in the research and developmental stage. Westinghouse Company announced that they will market a 1 MW Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Power Plant, with an efficiency of 70%, starting the year 2001.
In addition to having high utilization efficiencies, hydrogen fuel cells are clean (the only by-product being water), and quiet (i.e., no moving parts). They are versatile; they can be used for large-scale power generation in central power plants, as well as for small-scale electricity production in distributed mode. Because of all these unique characteristics, there is no doubt, that hydrogen fuel cell generating capacity will grow rapidly.
2.9. Surface vehicles
The unique properties of hydrogen make it suitable as a fuel for motive power, both for IC engine powered vehicles and electric powered vehicles. In addition to its unsurpassed environmental characteristics, the lean-burning property of hydrogen make it a suitable and efficient fuel for the stop-and-go type city driving. The Mazda Corporation of Japan has reported that hydrogen is the best fuel for Wänkel Engines.
The efficiency advantage of hydrogen fuel cells is being put into use in electric cars in which hydrogen fuel cells provide the motive power, rather than electric batteries. Hydrogen fuel cells can, and do overcome the problems encountered with battery-powered electric cars, such as small acceleration, low-velocity and short-driving range. As can be seen from Fig. 10, all of the major car companies of the world are now involved in the development and commercialization of hydrogen-fuelled motor vehicles. Most of these companies are preparing to offer hydrogen-fuelled cars in 2004.
2.10. Naval applications
Because it does not produce any harmful chemicals, due to its stealth characteristics, and because its higher efficiency will provide longer under water cruising range, the German Navy has decided to have its next generation of submarines incorporate hydrogen fuel cell power plants. Also, the Australian, Canadian and Italian navies are experimenting with hydrogen fuel cells in their submarines. (Fig. 11). Of course, because of the aforementioned characteristics, hydrogen is the right fuel for sea surface transportation, as well.
2.11. Space programs
Before 1974, hydrogen was used in rockets by the Soviet and the United States space programs. Now, the other countries, which have space programs, have joined them and are using hydrogen as the staple fuel of their space programs because of another unsurpassed, unmatched property of hydrogen — that of being the lightest fuel (Fig. 12).
2.12. Aerospace planes
Before 1974, there were no aerospace planes, which of course would have used hydrogen as fuel, because it is the fuel of choice for space programs. Today, we have the American shuttle visiting space, putting communication satellites and observation satellites in orbit, conducting various scientific experiments, and carrying the parts of the international space station. Russia has built a shuttle that can land automatically without a pilot being in charge. The European two plane Sänger System is on the drawing board. US Space Organization NASA is developing a single stage to orbit aerospace plane, named "VentureStar", to replace the present shuttle (Fig. 13). The contractors are Lockheed-Martin and Rocketdyne, a division of Boeing. It will use an aerospike rocket engine expected to run on "slush hydrogen" — a mixture of liquid and solid hydrogen — which makes use of another unique property of hydrogen, resulting in the reduction of storage size. The companies are now working on a one-third size concept demonstrator named X-33, which is scheduled to fly in 2002. There is no doubt that the experience gained will be of immense value in building tomorrow's hypersonic passenger transport — of course, to be fuelled by hydrogen.
2.13. Airplanes
Because of its light weight and excellent combustion characteristics, hydrogen is the ideal fuel for airplanes. In 1956, a Pratt & Whitney developed hydrogen-fuelled turbo-jet engine was mounted on one side of a B-57 bomber and some in-flight data were collected. After 1974, hydrogen-fuelled airplane activities have increased (Fig. 14). On April 15, 1988, the first passenger plane flew on a hydrogen-fuelled engine near Moscow. The Tupolev 155 (equivalent to an American Boeing 727) was equipped with two engines — one running on hydrogen, the other on jet fuel — a liquid hydrogen storage tank, and a hydrogen supply and control system. The plane took off and landed on jet fuel, but hydrogen was used during the cruising phase of the flight. The various aeronautical establishments of Russia and Tupolev Institute are now working on the design and development of an all-hydrogen supersonic passenger plane, which will be called the Tupolev 204.
On June 17, 1988, two months after the flight of the Soviet jet, Bill Conrad, a retired Pan American pilot, flew a hydrogen-fuelled single engine plane in Fort Lauderdale, FL. The flight lasted only 36 s, but the fact that it was fuelled entirely by hydrogen in take-off, flight and landing established a new record.
Actually, Mr. Conrad's plan was to taxi down the runway to the starting point, then take off, fly a few times above the airport and land, all on hydrogen fuel. Because hydrogen fuel is more efficient than conventional fuel, the plane suddenly lifted off the ground while taxiing. Mr. Conrad immediately reduced power, put the plane back on the runway, continued in his taxiing mode to the starting point, ready for the flight. The officials from the Civil Aeronautics Board and other recording agencies told Mr. Conrad that he had already established a record and there was no need for him to fly again.
The European Airbus Company has initiated a program of research and development work for a hydrogen-fuelled air transport. Their studies indicate that although hydrogen costs more than jet fuel, the airfares for hydrogen-fuelled air transportation would be competitive with today's airfares, because of the great weight and energy savings with (the much lighter) hydrogen fuel. Germany and Russia have signed an agreement of cooperation for the development of hydrogen-fuelled air transportation. Japan has initiated research and development work on a hypersonic transport, for which hydrogen is expected to be the fuel of choice, because of its excellent combustion properties, light weight and environmental compatibility.
2.14. Hydride applications
One of the unique properties of hydrogen is that it will combine with certain metals and alloys easily, in large amounts, forming hydrides in exothermic chemical reactions. When hydrides are supplied with heat, hydrogen is released. The temperature and pressure characteristics vary for different metals and alloys. Advantage is being taken of these properties for many electrochemical and thermochemical applications (Fig. 15). Smaller size hydrogen hydride batteries (e.g., for lap top computers), and larger batteries for electric cars have already been commercialized.
There are demonstration projects for hydrogen-hydride air conditioning, refrigeration and heat pumps. They do not need chlorofluorocarbons, and as such, they will not damage the ozone layer. Conversion to hydrogen-hydride air conditioning and refrigeration systems will put a definite stop to the ozone layer depletion.
2.15. Catalytic combustion
Another unique property of hydrogen is the flameless combustion or the catalytic combustion in the presence of small amounts of catalysts, such as platinum or palladium. Catalytic combustion applications have many advantages over those of flame combustion applications: They are safer and have higher second law efficiencies, as well as being environmentally compatible. Many residential and commercial appliances have been developed using this unique property of hydrogen (Fig. 16).
2.16. International programs
Today the German/Saudi Arabian Hy-Solar Project is producing solar hydrogen in the world's largest petroleum country. Saudi Arabians expect eventually to be the permanent exporters of energy in the form of solar hydrogen and they are preparing for it.
Euro-Quebec is another successful international program. They have been looking into applications of relatively inexpensive hydro power-produced liquid hydrogen imported to Europe from Canada — applications such as for city bus transportation and smelting of iron, as well as the development of an infrastructure for overseas transportation and storage of liquid hydrogen. Norway and Germany are working on a similar program.
The Japanese WE-NET Program is the most ambitious and comprehensive hydrogen program in the world. Japan expects to spend about 4 billion dollars by 2020 to achieve what amounts to a deliberate and planned way for conversion to hydrogen.
The International Space Station, which is now under construction, uses hydrogen for transportation, which will use hydrogen fuel cells to provide electricity and potable water, is another important international program based on hydrogen energy. Planning for the United Nations Industrial Development Organization's International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (to be established in Istanbul, Turkey) is moving ahead (Fig. 17).
2.17. International standards
Of course, no technology can take roots without standards, and no universal technology can be established without international standards. In 1990, the International Standards Organization, based in Geneva, Switzerland (which is now an affiliated organization of the United Nations), with the initiative and representations of Gustov Grob of Switzerland, decided that the time had arrived for preparing international standards for hydrogen energy technologies. They established, a committee, ISO/TC-197 Committee, to prepare such standards. During its first meeting, the Committee formed 10 sub-committees (Fig. 18) to work on the standards for Hydrogen Energy Technologies. It is gratifying to note that the committee's work is successfully moving ahead.
2.18. Building hydrogen economy
As you can gather from this overview, during the past quarter of a century, the fundamentals of the Hydrogen Energy System have been worked out, and strong foundations have been laid. As we enter the 21st Century, the development and commercialization of the various components of the Hydrogen Energy System are being accelerated. Our studies show that the world economy would essentially be based on Hydrogen Energy towards the end of the forthcoming three-quarters of a century, i.e., by 2074 (Fig. 19).
3. Concluding remarks
In one-quarter of a century — 1974–2000 — Hydrogen Energy has moved forward on all fronts; making in-roads in all areas of energy. Because of the unrelenting work of scientists, engineers and dreamers, such as the participants of the WHEC Conferences and the membership of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy. We can all rejoice in the progress made to date, and this progress has been substantial.
In the decades ahead of us, the progress will be many fold greater, and the Hydrogen Energy System will provide the Planet Earth, the only one known to be hospitable to life, with the energy system it deserves: clean, efficient, sustainable and abundant energy.
My friends, my colleagues, pioneers of the hydrogen age, your efforts will expedite the spread of the clean and abundant energy system, enhance the quality of the life for the peoples of the world, and help preserve our biosphere. I wish you Godspeed.